Shi'ism in the Layihas of Ottoman Iraq in the Reign of Abd al-Hamid II

Abstract

During the reign of Abd al-Hamid II, some layihas (reports) were prepared to be evaluated in the context of sectarian-political relations. Some of these reports were about Shi'ism, which was spreading in the Iraq region. Due to political, economic, and military factors as well as its religious-cultural position, the Iraq region turned into a field of struggle between the Ottomans and Iranians in the sixteenth and subsequent centuries. In the Iraq region, where important events took place in terms of Shiite-Imamiyya history, there are the tombs of six of the twelve imams and the atabat-e aliyat (Najaf, Karbala, Kazimayn, and Samerra), which are accepted as sacred and places of visit. Although there has been a Shiite presence in Iraq since the early periods, it is not possible to talk about a significant Shiite population density until the nineteenth century. However, as a result of some events from the mid-nineteenth century onwards, the Shiite population in the Iraq region has continuously increased. The Shiite population, which increased especially with the acceptance of Shi'ism by Sunni nomadic Arab tribes, became the majority in the important centers of the region by the last quarter of the century. Among the factors that influenced this process were the migration of Shiite scholars from Iranian lands to Iraq, the settlement of Shiite Muslims of Indian origin in the atabats, and the various aids provided to the atabats by the representatives of the Shii Awadh/Oudh state (1722-1856) established in North India. In addition to these, another important factor affecting the process is that as a result of the positive course of Ottoman-Iranian relations as a result of the period, Iran increased its influence in the Iraqi region, which it saw as a religious population area, and supported the activities that will affect the spread of Shiism in the region. Although some instructions by the Ottoman central government to prevent the spread of Shiites and Shi'ism in Baghdad were sent to the Baghdad governorate from time to time, the influence and spread of Shi'ism in Iraq was brought to the agenda for the first time in the reports prepared since the 1860s. However, the Ottoman central authority took the necessary measures to prevent the spread of Shiism in the region, especially after the period of Abd al-Hamid II, especially after the 1880s. Since the beginning of the 1890s, various studies have been initiated to prevent Shi'ism, which was spreading rapidly within the empire, especially in Iraq. As a matter of fact, firstly, inspection committees were sent to the region to identify the problems, and then those who had served in the region, were currently serving in the region or were in exile in the region were asked to prepare various reports to prevent the spread of Shi'ism. Some of these reports are entirely about the issue of Shi'ism. However, in some of the reports prepared about the general situation of the region, the issue of Shiism is mentioned in the context of the social and sectarian situation of the region. In general, the reports prepared on the subject focus on the religious-sectarian structure of the region, Iran's increasing influence in the region, the activities of the Shia mujtahids, and what kind of measures should be taken to prevent Shi'ism. As of the early 1890s, among those who prepared a report were Ali Riza Bey; Mehmed Rifat Efendi, the Defterdar of Baghdad; Suleyman Husnu Pasha, a prominent statesman in exile in Bag_h_dad; Mushir Nusret Pasha; Ali Galib Bey and Huseyin Husnu Efendi. The reports drive forward the inadequacy of Sunnite education and the activities of the mujtahids in the 'atabat as the reasons for the spread of Shi'ism in Iraq. In the context of the Iraq region, since the issue has political, military, and social aspects as well as religious/sectarian dimensions, the emphasis in the reports may vary depending on the author. For example, Mehmet Rifat, who states that the most important reform in the region is to prevent the spread of Shi'ism, suggests that especially primary education institutions should be opened in sufficient quantities and the necessary financial means should be provided for these institutions. On the other hand, Suleyman Husnu Pasha focuses on slightly different and mostly religious measures to prevent the spread of Shi'ism in the region. Suleyman Pasha suggested the formation of a religious society composed of scholars from Istanbul and other Islamic cities, where the first step would be to write a book (Kitab al-Aqa'id) to refute the beliefs of the heretical sects whose adherents exist today. On the other hand, in the context of the measures to be taken, in the reports explicitly state that education is indispensable, that the solution to the problem cannot be solved through military methods, and that sufficient salaries should be allocated to the scholar (ulema) to be appointed.